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 | Eight settlements in what are now Berks, Chester, Lancaster and Lebanon counties, to the west of Philadelphia |
| One settlement in Mifflin county in the center of Pennsylvania. |
| Three settlements in Somerset county in south-west Pennsylvania. |
Back in Europe, some Amish families moved to the Hesse region of Germany, Bavaria, Poland and Russia. None of the settlements were ultimately successful, as there is no organized Amish presence in Europe at this time. The last Amish congregation was in Ixheim, Germany. On 1937-JAN-17, it merged with their local Mennonite group.
Surviving external conflicts during the 18th century:
During the first century of Amish settlement in the American colonies, believers survived a number of external conflicts:
| Settlements in Pennsylvania were attacked during the French and Indian Wars during the mid 18th century. |
| Starting in the mid 18th century, a religious revival spread across the American colonies. The Amish were targeted by Baptist, Methodist, United Brethren. and German Baptist Brethren itinerant pastors and evangelists. The "revivalists" took a heavy toll on the Amish membership. |
| The War of Independence put a heavy strain on the Amish principle of pacifism and neutrality. The colonies were divided into Patriots and "Tories" -- those loyal to Britain. The Amish attempted to remain non-violent and neutral, but were attacked by both sides. For some of them, their situation was complicated by oaths of loyalty to Britain that they had taken when they were admitted to the colonies. |
Author Steven Nolt estimates that about 500 Amish had migrated to Pennsylvania during the 18th century. Most had large families. However, the attrition rate was so high that by the year 1800, there were fewer than 1,000 Amish in America. 1
Surviving internal conflicts during the 19th century:
A second wave of immigration from Europe lasted from 1817 to 1860. About 3,000 Amish relocated to the U.S. They were motivated to leave by religious oppression in Europe, financial problems, crop failures, continuing wars, the military draft, and high taxes. Most settled in Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Missouri, New York, Ohio, and Ontario in Canada. A few went to Pennsylvania. 2
Immigrants from Europe during the 19th century tended to be more progressive than those who were already established in the U.S. Some newcomers had partly abandoned traditions of Amish life. Deviations included wearing buttons on their coats; owning a piano, dishes with decorations, decorated carriages, and fancy furniture; dressing their children in fancy clothes. Perhaps even more serious, many were more flexible on matters of doctrine and belief.
The church remained united for the first half of the 19th century, in spite of growing friction between liberals and conservatives. In 1849, a conservative congregation in Mifflin County, PA, broke with most of the rest of the Amish church for reasons which are not clear.
A series of Diener-Versammlungens -- national meetings for Amish leaders were held in various settlements in Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Ohio, and Pennsylvania between 1862 and 1878. The intent was to strengthen church life and commitment. They were attended by a few dozen leaders and up to 1,500 lay persons. These meetings settled some important doctrines:
| Mennonites who wanted to join the Amish church would have to undergo a second baptism. |
| Amish who joined another religion or Christian denomination were to be excommunicated and shunned. |
| Photography, joining a state militia, and belonging to secret societies were banned. |
Unfortunately, in spite of initial optimism that the meetings would bring harmony, the end result was to emphasize the differences between the liberal and conservative factions within the Amish church. Thus, the meetings actually increased internal tensions. When separation came, it was not a single dramatic event. Rather, it was spread over decades as individual families and congregations gradually sorted themselves out into the traditionalist and change-minded camps. The latter wanted change but could not reach a consensus on the details. By 1880, there were four Amish groups: one conservative and four liberal:
| The conservative wing called themselves the Old Order Amish. They opted out of attending the later Diener-Versammlungens, and continued to follow the historical Amish beliefs and practices. They constituted only about one third of the Amish membership, and numbered only about 5,000 by the end of the 19th century. | ||||||
| The liberals became the Amish Mennonites. Most congregations
merged with the "Old Mennonites" by 1930, although some formed the
Conservative Amish Mennonite Conference in 1910 and the Ontario Amish
Mennonite Conference in 1925.
|
Developments in the 20th century:
| 1917: World War I: Canada began drafting young men, but gave agricultural releases to Amish youth. These ended in 1918-APR. Most Amish who were subsequently drafted into the armed forces were given indefinite leaves of absence in recognition of their conscientious objector (CO) status. The U.S. entered the war in the spring of 1917, and also started drafting men. The legislation provided for religious conscientious objectors, but there was no formal system for recognizing their status. Amish youth were required to report for duty. Some cooperated by undergoing training; most refused; some were physically and mentally abused in an effort to get them to join the military. |
| 1921: Ohio schools: Many Old Order Amish felt that high school and post-secondary education were a waste of their children's time. " 'Worldly wisdom' which went beyond the practical knowledge of reading, writing and mathematics posed a real threat to the Amish way of life and to church teaching on humility, simplicity, and mutual aid. Spending time in school for nine months a year with teachers who were hostile to Amish beliefs and traditions was not something that Amish parents wanted for their young people." 4 The state of Ohio passed the Bing Act in 1921 which required all children to attend school until they reached the age of 18. This conflicted with the Amish tradition of terminating their children's education after graduation from grade 8. The Amish compromised by applying for work release permits for their children at age 16. |
| 1927: The Beachy Amish: This group is also referred to as the Beachy Amish Mennonites. Conflict arose among the Old Order Amish in Somerset County, PA. Some members had left the group and affiliated with a nearby Conservative Amish Mennonite congregation which was somewhat more liberal than the Old Order. Members who left had been strictly shunned. A new associate bishop, Moses M. Beachy was ordained in the Old Order. He announced that he would neither excommunicate nor shun Old Order Amish who had become Amish Mennonites. His church's members deviated further from Old Order traditions, by founding Sunday schools, meeting in a church building, wiring their homes for commercial electricity, relaxing dress standards, and buying automobiles. For the next three decades, the movement spread to Indiana, Kansas, Ohio, and Ontario, Canada. | ||||||
| 1937: Pennsylvania schools: East Lampeter Township in Lancaster County, PA decided to close ten one-room schools and replace them with a single, centrally located, consolidated school. The Amish objected, and the governor compromised by keeping a single one-room school open for them. However, the state passed a new law that year requiring children to be fifteen years of age before they could obtain a work permit and leave school. This was rolled back to fourteen years after the Amish circulated a petition. In late 1938, Lancaster County Amish opened the first of two parochial schools. | ||||||
| 1939: World War II: Canada declared war on Germany in the fall of
1939; the U.S. entered the war two years later. This time, Brethren
Mennonite, Quaker and other religious leaders had negotiated a better deal
with the government for conscientious objectors. The Canadian Alternative
Service Work (ASW) and American Civil Public Service (CPS)
programs allowed COs to be assigned to non-military work assignments. Of the
772 Old Order Amish who were drafted, 23 entered the army, 27 chose
non-combatant military tasks, and 722 declared themselves COs. Many Amish refused to use the wartime ration stamps that the government distributed to regulate the purchase of food and other necessities. Their main objection was that the stamps contained images of tanks, planes and other military equipment. They found ways of doing without food and other materials. | ||||||
| 1952: Conscientious objectors: The U.S. draft returned in 1948. In 1952, conscientious objectors were required to work for two years in an alternative program, called 1-W. Amish youth were typically employed in cities, where they had almost complete freedom of action outside of work hours. Some became integrated into "The English" (non-Amish) culture and never returned to their families. Others became emotionally troubled by the culture shock of being exposed to non-Amish society. | ||||||
| 1955: Social Security: Congress expanded the Social Security program to include all self-employed farmers. Most Amish felt that government social programs of this type violated their traditions. The Amish had always cared for their own people. Many refused to pay into the system. The federal government placed liens on Amish property and sometimes foreclosed and sold several farms in order to collect premiums. In one memorable incident, government agents stopped Valentine Byler in New Wilmington, PA while he was plowing in his fields and took possession of three of his horses for sale. Anger from "The English" forced the government to back down. Later in the year, Congress exempted the Amish from both Medicare and Social Security. | ||||||
| 1966: Conscientious objectors: Some Amish leaders found that about half of their drafted young men never returned home. The Beachy Amish tackled this attrition by creating retirement homes in five states, and arranging Amish COs to work there without experiencing culture shock. They also founded mission programs in Europe, Canada and Latin America. Their COs partly staffed their North American offices and warehouses. The Old Order Amish tried a different approach. They organized a National Amish Steering Committee to negotiate alternative arrangements with the government. This was a major departure for the Old Order; their basic organizational unit had always been the individual congregation; never before did they have a national group speaking for them. In 1969, the committee was able to arrange a system of farm deferments for its COs. | ||||||
| 1966: The New Order Amish: Doctrinal disputes plagued the
Old Order throughout the 1950s and 1960s. Most dealt with:
| ||||||
| 1967: School problems continue: Motivated by a series of conflicts over Amish schooling in many states, Reverend William C. Lindholm, pastor of Grace Lutheran Church in East Tawas, MI, helped organize, and became the first chairperson of, the National Committee for Amish Religious Freedom (NCARF). They launched a lawsuit, Wisconsin v. Yoder, asking that the Amish be exempted from the state's school codes. In 1971, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled in NCARF's favor, thus strengthening religious freedom and parental rights for all Americans. The court noted that the lack of high school education among the Amish had not made them an economic burden on the rest of society. The decision allowed the Amish and Old Order Mennonites to either establish their own schools, or withdraw their children from public schools after they graduate from grade 8. This granting of additional religious freedom is not without cost. It generates hardship to those Amish youth and adults who might want to leave their religion behind and join the larger American culture. With no high school or post-secondary education, their economic options are severely limited. | ||||||
| 1967: Migration to Latin America: Some Amish considered moving away
from North America to avoid problems with the military draft, schooling, the
gradual secularization of the dominant culture, etc. Peter and Anna Wagler Stoll
of Alymer, ON, Canada moved with several other Old Order and New Order
families to Honduras. From an agricultural standpoint, the colony was a success.
They were considered wealthy by the surrounding Honduran farmers. However,
conflicts within the group between the Old and New order members grew and could
not be resolved. In the late 1970s, most returned to North America. The New
Order Amish who remained in Honduras affiliated with the Beachy Amish. Also in 1967, seven Old Order Amish families from Indiana moved to the Chaco region of Paraguay. A group of conservative Mennonites had previously settled there. The group almost doubled in size over the next two years. Again, they were an agricultural success. However, they were unable to form a "spiritually stable congregation." 5 In 1978, most returned to North America; some joined with the local Mennonites; a few formed an independent Amish group. | ||||||
| 1967: Canada Pension Plan: This is a program similar to Social Security in the U.S. Revenue Canada officials started raiding Amish bank accounts in Ontario, attempting to collect unpaid premiums. In 1974, the federal government exempted self-employed Amish from the system. Canadian Amish now have Social Insurance Numbers (ironically referred to as S.I.N. numbers), which the government uses to identify its citizens and residents. However, they are in a numerical series that prevents them from receiving any benefits. | ||||||
| Recent developments: There have been a number of changes over the
last few decades that have significantly impacted Amish culture:
|
Current membership:
In his Encyclopedia of American Religions, 6th edition (1999), J. Gordon Melton described four currently active Amish groups. In alphabetic order, they are:
| The Beachy Amish Mennonite Churches split off from the Old Order Amish in Pennsylvania after Bishop Moses Beachy refused to pronounce the ban on some former Old Order members who had left to join a Conservative Mennonite congregation in Maryland. They are the most liberal Amish group: they meet in churches, use automobiles, tractors, and electricity. In 1996, they reported 8,399 adult members in 138 congregations. |
| The Conservative Mennonite Conference was formed in 1910 from a group of more liberal Old Order Amish congregations. They use meeting houses, Sunday schools, and English language services. They are located mainly in the Midwest. No membership data is available. |
| The Evangelical Mennonite Church was organized in 1866 by Bishop Henry Egly in Indiana. They were originally known as the Egly Amish, changed their name to The Defenseless Mennonite Church in 1898, and to their present name in 1948. They stress "regeneration, separation and nonconformity to the world." In 1997, they were reported to have 4,348 adult members in 30 churches. |
| Old Order Amish Mennonite Church congregations are very conservative. Transportation is by horse and buggy. Men are required to grow beards; mustaches are not allowed. Marriage outside the faith is forbidden. They meet in each other's homes for worship every other Sunday. About 8% of their membership is made up of converts from outside the community and their descendents. There were about 30,000 adult members in the U.S. and 900 in Canada in 1995. Including children, the total population was about 139,000. |
There are also additional Amish groups:
| The Kauffman Amish Mennonites (a.k.a. Sleeping Preacher Amish) had 9 congregations, and perhaps on the order of 1,200 adult members. |
| A few independent congregations exist. However, they are relatively small in numbers. |
Probably the current total adult membership of all Amish groups would be on the order of 180,000 spread across 22 states. The largest concentration, with about 45,000 members is in Ohio. There are smaller numbers in Illinois, Indiana, Pennsylvania, New York, etc. About 1,500 live in south-eastern Ontario, Canada. 6,7
References used:
- Steven Nolt, "A history of the Amish," Good Books, (1992). Read reviews or order this book safely from Amazon.com online book store
- D.R. Elder, " 'Es Sind Zween
Weg': Singing Amish children into the Faith Community," Page 2 at:
http://ist-socrates.berkeley.edu/ You may need software to read these PDF
files. It can be obtained free from:
- Op Cit, Nolt, Page 161.
- Op Cit, Nolt, Page 228 to 233.
- Op Cit, Nolt, Page 269.
- J.G. Melton, "Encyclopedia of American Religions, 6th edition," Gale, (1999), Page 787 & 787
- "Beachy Amish Mennonite Fellowship," Global Anabaptist Mennonite Encyclopedia Online, at: http://www.gameo.org/
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